IMVERS1TY  OF  CALIFORNIA   PUBLICATIONS 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


The  Economic  Value  of  the  Western 
Meadowlark  in  California 

HAROLD  C.  BRYANT 


Fig.    1. — "Western    Meadowlark    (Sturnella   neglecta).      (Original.) 

BULLETIN  No.  236 

(BERKELEY,  CAL.,  FEBRUARY,  1913) 


Friend   Wm.   Richardson,   Superintendent  of   State  Printino 

sacramento,  california 

1913 


Benjamin   Ide    Wheeler,   President    <>!'    the   University. 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF. 

T.    F.    Hunt,   D.Agr.,    Director. 

E.    W.    Hilgard,   Ph.D.,    LL.D.,   Chemist    (Emeritus). 

E.  J.    Wickson,   M.A.,    Horticulturist. 

If.   J.   Wkhiikii,   Ph.  IV,    Director  Citrus   lOxperiment    Station,   Riverside. 
II.    B.    Van   Norman,    B.S..   Vice-Director   and   Dean   of  University    ['arm. 
W.   A.   Setchell,   Ph.D..   Botanist. 
•Leroy   Anderson,  Ph.D..   Dairy  Industry. 
M.    E.    Jaffa,   M.S.,   Nutrition    Expert. 

R.    If.   Lotjghridoe,  Ph.D.,   Soil   Chemist  and  Physicist    (Emeritus). 
C.   W.  Woodwortii.  M.S.,   Entomologist. 

♦Ralph  TO.   Smith,  B.S.,   Plant  Pathologist  and  Superintendent  of  Southern  California 
Pathological    Laboratory    and    Experiment    Station. 

F.  R.   Marshall,    B.S.A.,   Animal   Industry. 
J.  E.  Coit.  Ph.D.,  Citriculturlst 

J.    W.    Gilmore,   M.S.A.,    Agronomist. 

A.  V.  Stubenrauch,  M.S.,   Pomologist. 
C.  F.  Shaw,  B.S.,  Soil  Technologist. 

J.   W.   Gregg,  B.S.,   Floriculturist. 

*G.  W.   Shaw,  M.A.,   Ph.D.,   Experimental   Agronomist  and  Agricultural  Technologist, 
in  charge  of  Cereal  Stations. 

B.  A.    Etcheverry,    B.S.,    Irrigation   Expert. 
F.   T.   Bioletti,  M.S.,   Viticulturist. 

W.  T.  Clarke,  B.S.,  Assistant  Horticulturist  and  Superintendent  of  University  Exten- 
sion  in   Agriculture. 
John   S.   Burd,  B.S.,   Chemist,   in  charge  of  Fertilizer  Control. 
C   B.   Lipman,  Ph.D.,   Soil   Chemist  and   Bacteriologist. 
George    E.    Colby,   M.S.,    Chemist    (Fruits,    Waters,    and    Insecticides),    in    charge    of 

Chemical   Laboratory. 
*H.    J.    Quayle.   M.S.,    Assistant   Entomologist. 
.  Hall,  Ph.D.,   Assistant  Botanist. 
Haring,   D.V.M.,   "Veterinarian   and   Bacteriologist. 
Babcock,   B.S.,    Agricultural   Education. 
.    Herms,   M.A.,   Assistant   Entomologist. 
Horne,  B.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 
Davis,   B.S.,   Assistant  Dairy  Industry. 
.  Bonns,  B.S.A.,  Assistant  Pomologist. 

Gaumnitz,   M.S.,    Assistant   Agronomist,    University   Farm,    Davis. 
Hunt,   B.S.,   Assistant   Plant   Pathologist. 
Hagemann,   Assistant   in    Dairying,   Davis. 
Thompson,  B.S.,  Assistant  Animal  Industry,  Davis. 
Bridwell,  B.S.,   Assistant  Entomologist. 
nnet,  I.A.,   Assistant  Viticulturist. 

H.   Flossfeder,  Assistant   in  Viticulture.   University  Farm,   Davis. 
Stover,  B.S..  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Chemical  Laboratory. 
H.   S.   Baird,  B.S.,   Assistant  Dairy  Industry. 
Walter  H.  Dore,  B.S.,  Chemist  Fertilizer  Control. 
P.   L.   Hibbard,  B.S.,   Assistant  Fertilizer  Control  Laboratory. 
C.    H.   McCharles.   M.S.,    Assistant    Agricultural   Chemical   Laboratory. 

B.  A.   Madson,  B.S.A.,   Assistant  Experimental  Agronomist. 

Walter  E.   Packard,  M.S.,   Field   Assistant  Imperial  Valley  Investigation,   EI   Centre 
S.  S.  Rogers,  B.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist,  Plant  Disease  Laboratory,  Whittier. 
C  O.  Smith,  M.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist,  Plant  Disease  Laboratory,  Whittier. 

E.  H.   Smith,  M.S..   Assistant   Plant  Pathologist. 

C.  L.  Roadhouse.  D.V.M.,  Assistant  in  Veterinary  Science. 

F.  M.  Hayes,  D.V.M.,  Assistant  Veterinarian. 

P.  S.  Burgess,  M.S.,  Assistant  Soil  Bacteriologist. 

W.  F.  Gericke,  B.S.,  Assistant  Soil  Chemist. 

.1.   E.   Dougherty,  B.S.A.,  Assistant  Poultry  Husbandry. 

W.  H.  Volck,  Field  Assistant  in  Entomology,  Watsonville. 

E.   L.  Morris.  Field  Assistant  in  Entomology,  San  Jose. 

E.  E.  Thomas,  B.S.,  Assistant  Chemist,   Plant  Disease  Laboratory,  Whittier. 

G.  P.  Gray,  M.S.,  Chemist  in  Insecticides. 

H.    D.   Young,   B.S.,   Assistant   in   Agricultural   Chemistry,    Plant  Disease   Laboratory, 

Whittier. 
A.   R.  Tylor,  B.S.,   Assistant  in  Plant  Pathology,  Plant  Disease  Laboratory,  Whittier. 
W.  V.  Cruess,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Zymology. 

.1.    F.    Mitchell,   D.V.M.,   Assistant   in   Veterinary   Laboratory. 
M.   R.   Miller,  B.S.,   Assistant  Chemist   in   Insecticides. 

F.  H.   Wilson,  B.S.,   Assistant  in   Soil  Chemistry. 
W.   M.   Mertz,  Assistant  in  Pomology,   Riverside. 

Anna  M.  Lute,  A.B.,  Scientific  Assistant,  U.   S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

D.  L.  Bunnell,  Secretary  to  Director. 


H. 

M. 

C. 

M. 

E. 

B. 

W 

B. 

\Y 

T. 

L. 

M. 

W. 

W 

A. 

J. 

T. 

F. 

E. 

H. 

J. 

I.   1 

J. 

C. 

L. 

Bo 

V. 

C. 

1Y1 

E. 

•Absent  on  leave. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Lest  certain  birds  noted  for  their  occasional  depredations  be  unwit- 
tingly destroyed  before  their  real  value  to  the  agriculturalist  was  found 
out,  and  in  order  to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  such  an  economic  loss  as  is 
exemplified  in  the  extinction  of  the  passenger  pigeon,  the  California 
State  Fish  and  Game  Commission,  in  cooperation  with  the  University 
of  California.*  decided  to  carry  on  a  thorough,  scientific  investigation 
into  the  relation  of  certain  birds  about  which  complaint  has  been  made. 
In  so  doing,  they  have  hoped  to  present  unprejudiced  evidence  as  to  the 
value  of  the  birds  concerned,  thus  making  an  adequate  basis  for  legis- 
lation. 

For  a  number  of  years  grain  growers  have  complained  of  damage 
to  sprouting  grain  caused  by  western  meadowlarks  (Sturnella  neglecta) . 
These  birds  have  been  accused,  and  rightly  so,  of  digging  down  beside 
the  sprout  and  pulling  off  the  kernel  of  grain.  Ranchers  have  main- 
tained that  in  some  cases  whole  fields  of  grain  have  had  to  be  reseeded 
because  of  the  great  loss  occasioned  by  the  birds. 

An  unsuccessful  attempt  to  take  protection  away  from  the  meadow- 
lark  has  been  made  in  the  last  two  legislatures.  The  failure  of  the 
first  bill  to  pass  led  the  adherents  of  the  measure  to  modify  the  second 
bill  so  as  to  take  protection  from  the  bird  only  in  those  counties  where 
it  was  known  to  cause  considerable  damage. 

For  these  reasons  the  investigation  by  the  California  State  Fish  and 
Game  Commission  into  the  relation  of  birds  to  agricultural  and  other 
interests  of  the  State  has  been  directed  primarily  toward  a  determina- 
tion of  the  economic  value  of  the  western  meadowlark. 

The  real  value  of  a  bird  can  only  be  determined  after  a  careful  study 
of  both  direct  and  indirect  benefits  conferred  by  it  and  the  injuries 
which  it  causes,  as  well  as  its  entire  life  history.  Consequently  in  this 
investigation  a  number  of  methods  have  been  used.  Field  investigation 
has  been  relied  on  to  furnish  evidence  as  to  the  kind  and  the  extent  of 
the  injuries  to  crops,  and  to  the  life  history  of  the  bird  and  of  the 
relation  of  birds  to  insect  outbreaks.  Experimentation  has  been  relied 
upon  to  furnish  evidence  as  to  the  quantity  of  food  required,  and  as  to 
the  time  of  digestion.  Evidence  as  to  the  food  habits  has  been  largely 
furnished  by  laboratory  examination  of  the  contents  of  the  stomachs 
of  birds  collected  for  that  purpose. 

COLLECTION    OF   NON-GAME    BIRDS. 

Birds  in  sufficient  numbers  to  furnish  reliable  data,  collected  every 
two  weeks  during  a  year,  and  from  over  twenty  different  localities  in 
the  State,  have  been  made  available  through  the  cooperation  of  the 
deputies  of  the  Commission.  Each  bird  has  been  tagged  with  data  as 
to  date,  time  of  day,  locality,  kind  of  field  or  orchard,  and  collector. 
They  have  then  been  preserved  in  formalin.  On  the  arrival  of  ship- 
ments at  the  laboratory  the  stomach  (gizzard)  has  been  removed,  and 
data  as  to  the  species  and  sex  of  the  different  birds  added.     The  tag 

"Contribution  from  the  Zoological  Laboratory  of  the  University  of  California 
prepared   under   the   direction   of   Professor   C.   A.    Kofoid. 

N.  B.  A  technical  report  giving  full  details  of  the  investigation  is  in  course  of 
preparation  and  will  be  published  in  the  Zoological  Series  of  the  University  of 
California   Publications. 


bearing  complete  data  has  then  been  wrapped  with  the  stomach  in  a 
small  cloth,  and  preserved  in  formalin  until  microscopically  examined. 


MATERIAL. 


The  accompanying  map  (Fig.  2)  shows  the  localities  in  which  collec- 
tions have  been  made.  The  localities  from  which  complete  series,  that 
is,  birds  collected  each  month  of  the  year,  were  made  and  those  localities 
from  which  incomplete  series  were  obtained  are  indicated. 


Fig.  2. — -Map  of  California  showing  localities  in  which  collections  of  non-game  birds* 
have  been  made  for  the  purpose  of  stomach  examination.  The  number  of  collections 
now  available  for  stomach  examination  are  indicated.  A  complete  series  is  a 
minimum  of  six  birds  collected  each  month  in  a  year. 


In  order  that  the  work  of  1911  might  be  verified,  collections  were 
continued  in  several  places  during  1912.  This  has  afforded  a  com- 
parison of  the  food  in  two  succeeding  years  and  has  acted  as  a  check 
on  the  results  obtained. 

Slightly  over  nineteen  hundred  stomachs  of  western  meadowlarks 
have  been  available  for  examination.  The  contents  of  each  stomach 
has  been  microscopically  examined,  and  the  number,  kind,  and  percent- 


—  5  — 

age-volume  of  each  article  of  diet  has  been  recorded.  The  stomach 
contents  have  been  preserved  in  every  case,  so  that  a  verification  of  the 
work  is  at  all  times  possible. 

THE    WESTERN    M  EADOWLARK. 

The  meadowlark  is  not  a  true  lark,  but  belongs  to  the  same  family, 
Icterida?,  to  which  the  blackbird  and  oriole  belong.  Since  the  meadow- 
lark  of  the  eastern  United  States  differs  from  that  found  in  the  western 
States  in  both  coloration  and  song,  the  bird  of  the  west  is  termed  the 
western  meadowlark  (Sturnella  neglecta)  (Fig.  1).  The  western 
meadowlark  is  a  common  bird  from  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Texas, 
etc.,  west  to  the  Pacific  coast,  also  ranging  north  into  Canada  and  south 
into  Mexico. 

The  meadowlark  is  well  known  because  of  its  size,  bright  plumage 
and  cheerful  song.  It  is  a  conspicuous  bird  of  treeless  areas  and  a 
frequenter  of  the  meadow  and  pasture.  In  California  it  is  found  from 
sea  level  to  altitudes  of  7,000  feet  in  the  mountains.  It  is  most 
abundant  in  the  great  central  valleys  where  in  some  places  the  birds 
may  be  seen  congregated  in  flocks  of  fifty  or  more.  Censuses  have 
shown  that  wastern  meadowlarks  are  most  often  found  in  uncultivated, 
grassy  fields. 

The  western  meadowlark  feeds  almost  entirely  on  the  ground.  When 
startled,  it  usually  perches  on  a  clod  or  fencepost  and  shows  its  antip- 
athy to  the  intruder  by  noising  continuously  his  "clerk-clerk-clerk." 
A  squatting  motion,  accompanied  with  a  flash  of  four  white  tail  feathers 
by  a  spreading  of  the  tail,  also  characterizes  the  startled  meadowlark. 

The  western  meadowlark  appears  to  be  one  of  the  few  birds  which 
is  profiting  by  the  increased  cultivation  of  land.  Alfalfa  furnishes 
particularly  good  food  and  cover  for  the  bird  and  grain  fields  are  often 
chosen  for  a  home.  With  the  furnishing  of  still  more  good  food  and 
cover,  combined  with  the  destruction  of  some  of  its  enemies,  the  western 
meadowlark  may  be  expected  to  still  further  increase  in  numbers. 

In  California  the  meadowlark  is  a  resident  bird,  spending  the  whole 
year  in  the  same  general  locality.  There  may  be  an  occasional  migra- 
tion to  or  from  higher  altitudes  with  a  shortage  of  food  supply,  but 
this  is  unusual. 

DEPREDATIONS. 

Field  investigation  has  shown  that  western  meadowlarks  do  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  damage  in  grain  fields  in  some  parts  of  the  State. 
The  most  serious  damage  is  done  while  the  grain  is  sprouting.  It  is 
indeed  astonishing  the  skillful  way  in  which  the  bird  follows  the  drill- 
row,  bores  down  beside  the  sprout,  and  pulls  out  the  kernel. 

Ofttimes  the  kernel  is  simply  crushed  in  the  bill  and  the  hull  and 
sprout  dropped  beside  the  hole.  For  this  reason  examination  of 
stomach-contents  does  not  always  show  the  total  damage  done.  It  is 
interesting  to  note,  also,  that  this  is  not  a  new  habit  recently  acquired. 
Dr.  Elliott  Coues  called  attention  to  this  habit  in  1874. 

Oats  appear  to  be  preferred,  for  losses  are  greater  in  these  fields, 
even  when  other  grain  is  available.  However,  the  destruction  most 
nearly  parallels  availability.  The  damage  is  often  considerable,  espec- 
ially where  the  birds  are  numerous  and  the  area  of  the  field  small.  In 
the  fields  inspected,  damage  was  greatest  in  sandy  soil,  for  here  the  grain 


—  6  — 

is  more  easily  obtained.  Next  to  the  condition  of  the  soil,  the  factor 
governing  the  extent  of  damage  appears  to  be  the  proximity  to  pasture 
land  or,  in  other  words,  to  the  natural  habitat  of  the  bird.  Borders 
of  fields  near  grass  land  suffer  most.  In  some  instances  it  was  found 
that  meadowlarks  had  followed  the  drill  row  for  distances  of  four  to 
six  feet  and  apparently  pulled  every  sprout.  In  broadcasted  fields 
thinning  was  found  to  be  considerable.  In  localities  where  meadow- 
larks  are  not  numerous,  practically  no  damage  is  done.  The  extent  of 
damage  varies  directly  with  the  numbers  of  the  birds.  Barley  and 
wheat  are  attacked  to  a  less  extent.  Field  corn  and  sorghum  are  not 
damaged  and  no  complaints  have  been  received. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  damage  to  sprouting  grainfields  is  real,  it 
is  often  exaggerated.  A  number  of  things  minimizes  both  the  real  and 
the  possible  damage  to  sprouting  grain.     In  the  first  place,  meadowlarks 


Fig.  3. — Holes  bored  by  western  meadowlarks  in  obtaining  kernels  of  grain  in 
sprouting  grainfield.  Photograph  by  H.  C.  Bryant  taken  at  Lathrop,  San  Joaquin 
County,   California,   February  28,   1912. 


can  succeed  in  pulling  the  sprouting  grain  only  when  it  first  appears 
above  the  ground.  After  the  second  and  third  blades  appear,  the  plant 
is  well  rooted  and  the  kernel  no  longer  essential  to  the  life  of  the  plant. 
Only  the  grain  which  is  within  one  and  one  half  inches  of  the  surface 
is  obtainable.  Hence  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  kernel  and  the 
termination  of  the  time  during  which  the  kernel  is  essential  to  the  life  of 
the  plant  soon  makes  destruction  impossible.  Probably  in  few  cases 
is  damage  to  sprouting  grainfields  extended  over  a  period  more  than 
two  weeks.  Hard,  dry  soil  precludes  attack.  Damage  is  greatest  after 
the  soil  has  been  softened  by  rain. 

Investigation  has  also  shown  that  fields  apparently  greatly  damaged 
by  meadowlarks  while  the  grain  was  sprouting  have  shown  but  little 
damage  at  harvest  time.  In  some  cases  a  certain  amount  of  thinning 
may  be  beneficial  so  that  unless  the  damage  is  great  the  birds  may 


perform  a  real  service.  The  fact  that  oats  is  most  seriously  damaged 
and  that,  with  the  exception  of  barley  and  wheat,  other  grains  are  not 
attacked  also  minimizes  the  amount  of  possible  damage. 

The  two  other  complaints  lodged  against  the  western  meadowlark — 
that  it  is  destructive  to  melons  and  grapes — have  been  found  to  be 
grossly  exaggerated.  Some  damage  is  caused  to  melons  by  meadowlarks 
boring  into  them  apparently  in  search  of  water  or  the  sweet  juice. 
Melon  growers  have  been  quick  to  complain  of  the  great  damage  done, 
but  in  every  case  have  been  unable  to  demonstrate  the  real  damage  in 
the  field.  It  would  also  appear  that  damage  to  grapes  is  slight.  The 
meadowlark  is  not  a  fruit-eating  species,  and  it  seems  only  natural  that 
it  would  turn  its  attention  to  this  kind  of  food  only  when  forced  to  by 
the  lack  of  other  food  or  need  of  water. 

VERDICT  OF   RANCHERS. 

In  order  that  the  opinion  of  the  men  most  directly  concerned  be  not 
overlooked,  a  circular  letter  was  sent  out  to  prominent  ranchers  of  the 
State  asking  a  number  of  questions.  A  table  showing  the  answers 
obtained  to  the  more  important  questions  follows: 


Number 
reporting. 

Is  the  meadowlark 
a  nuisance? 

Does  the  meadowlark 
damage  crops? 

Yes.                  No. 

Yes. 

Nil. 

Northern  and  central  coast  counties... 
Centra]  valley  counties - 

19 
55 
15 
14 

5 

34 
1 
2 

13 
21 
14 
12 

6 

29 

1 

1 

13 
20 

Mountain    counties    __  

14 

Southern   California 

12 

Totals .... 

103 
89 

42 
40 

60 
48 

37 
36 

59 

Total   northern   California,. 

46 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  there  is  a  considerable  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  wmether  the  meadowlark  does  any  damage  at  all.  The 
astonishing  thing  is  that  many  grain  growers  do  not  consider  the  bird 
injurious  to  their  crops.  It  does  not  seem  reasonable  to  believe  that  all 
of  these  men  based  their  judgment  entirely  on  sentiment.  Southern 
California  is  almost  unanimous  in  its  verdict  of  "not  guilty."  Two 
reasons  can  be  made  to  account  for  this — the  smaller  amount  of  grain 
raised  and  the  comparatively  small  number  of  meadowlarks  there.  It 
is  from  the  great  central  valleys,  the  grain-growing  sections  of  the  State, 
that  the  greater  complaint  naturally  comes.  The  majority  of  those 
reporting  have  not  had  crops  damaged  by  western  meadowlarks  and  do 
not  consider  the  bird  a  nuisance. 


THE  FOOD  OF  THE  WESTERN  MEADOWLARK. 


EXAMINATION     OF    STOMACH-CONTENTS. 

A  correct  determination  of  the  economic  status  of  a  bird  is  largely 
dependent  on  the  knowledge  of  its  food.  The  food  of  a  bird  can  be 
roughly  determined  by  watching  the  bird  in  the  field.  The  most 
dependable  data  concerning  the  food  of  most  birds,  however,  is  obtained 
by  examining  the  contents  of  the  bird's  stomach.  Consequently  stomach 
examination  has  been  largely  depended  upon  to  furnish  needed  evidence 
as  to  the  food  of  the  birds  under  investigation. 


The  food  contained  in  the  stomachs  of  western  meadowlarks  can  be 
separated  into  two  classes — animal  food  and  vegetable  food.  The 
animal  food  consists  largely  of  insects  and  other  small  animals,  and  the 
vegetable  food  of  grain  and  seeds.  !n  determining  the  economic  status 
of  a  bird,  both  the  kind  and  quantity  of  food  must  be  considered. 
Hence  the  results  of  stomach  examination  are  expressed  in  the  number 
of  each  kind  of  insect  found  and  the  percentage  of  the  volume  occupied 
by  each  kind.  The  former  gives  us  some  idea  of  the  numbers  of 
injurious  insects  actually  destroyed ;  the  latter  some  idea  of  the  capacity 
for  good  or  evil  and  a  more  accurate  idea  of  the  comparative  amounts 
of  the  different  kinds  of  food  taken. 

ANIMAL    FOOD. 

Over  half  (59.6%)  of  the  food  for  the  year  is  made  up  of  animal 
food.  The  animal  food  comprises  beetles,  grasshoppers,  crickets,  Jerus- 
alem crickets,  cutworms,  caterpillars,  wireworms,  bugs,  bees,  ants,  wasps, 
flies,  spiders,  and  other  miscellaneous  arthropods. 

Beetles  form  17  per  cent  of  the  total  food  for  the  year.     From  twenty 
„m„Ai  .00.  "'"'•  to  fifty  have  often  been  found  in  a 

vcctutLt  mi.  imSpm  single  stomach.     Ground  beetles  (Car- 

abidce,  I 'enebrionidce)  are  most  often 
taken  but  such  injurious  beetles  as 
click-beetles  (Elateridce) ,  pinacate- 
beetles  (Eleodes  sp.),  leaf-beetles 
(Chrysomelidce) ,  snout-beetles  (Otio- 
rhynchidcc) ,  and  weevils  (Calandri- 
dce)  are  destroyed  in  great  numbers. 
Wireworms,  the  larvae  of  click-beetles, 
are  taken  in  quantity  where  they  are 
available. 

Grasshoppers  form  about  fifteen 
per  cent  of  the  food  for  the  year. 
Parts  of  as  many  as  twenty-six  large 
grasshoppers  (1  inch  or  over  in 
length)  and  fifty-eight  small  grass- 
hoppers {I  inch  in  length)  have  been 
taken  from  single  stomachs.  Mead- 
owlarks   feed    almost    exclusively 


on 


Fig.  4. — Diagram  showing  relative 
amounts  of  different  kinds  of  food  taken 
during  the  year  by  western  meadow- 
larks.     Computed    from    the    results   of 

the  stomach  examination  of  1200  birds   grasshoppers  during  the  summer  and 

/>nlloMoH      in      all      rartc     /->f     thn      Stofo  \f  ^ 1  i    n  » 

fall     months.     All    of    the    destruc- 

Crickets 


collected  in  all  parts  of  the  State. 


tive  species  found  in  California  are  destroyed  in  great  numbers. 
(Gryllus  sp.)  and  Jerusalem  crickets  (Stenopelmatus  sp.)  are  also  taken 
in  large  numbers.  The  jaws  of  fifteen  common  black  crickets  (Gryllus 
pcnnsylvanicus)  were  taken  from  one  stomach. 

Cutworms  and  caterpillars  form  about  ten  per  cent  of  the  total  food. 
Many  stomachs  have  contained  as  high  as  twenty  large  cutworms  or 
caterpillars.  One  bird  taken  at  Eed  Bluff,  Tehama  County,  had  eaten 
sixty-six  cutworms.     Even  hairy  caterpillars  are  destroyed. 

The  commonest  true  bugs  destroyed  by  western  meadowlarks  are 
stink-bugs  (Pentatomidce),  negro-bugs  (Corimelaenidce) ,  leafhoppers 
(Jassidce),  and  cicada  flies  (Cieadidce).  They  form  over  three  per  cent 
of  the  food  for  the  year.  As  high  as  twenty  stink-bugs  have  been  taken 
from  a  single  stomach. 


9 


Bees  and  wasps  form  nearly  five  per  cent  of  the  food  for  the  year. 
Ichneumon  flies,  valuable  parasitic  insects,  are  frequently  taken.  Ants 
form  more  than  one  per  cent  of  the  food.  They  are  taken  irrespective 
of  kind  and  over  one  hundred  ants  have  been  found  in  some  stomachs. 
Cow-killers  (Mutillidce)  are  occasionally  eaten. 

Spiders  and  their  egg  cases,  sow-bugs,  centipedes,  millipedes,  scor- 
pions, and  ant-lions  are  eaten  to  a  less  extent.  Each  forms  less  than 
one  per  cent  of  the  food  for  the  year. 


Fig.  5. — Photograph  of  stomach-contents  of  a  western  meadowlark  collected  at  Big 
Pine,  Inyo  County,  California,  April  19,  1911.  The  stomach  contained  13  cutworms, 
26  click-beetles  (Drasterius  sp.),  and  10  small  ground  beetles  (Amara  sp.). 
(Original.) 

VEGETABLE    FOOD. 

The  vegetable  food  of  the  western  meadowlark  is  made  up  of  grain 
and  seeds,  most  of  the  latter  being  the  seeds  of  weeds.  It  forms  40.4 
per  cent  of  the  food  for  the  year,  31  per  cent  being  grain  and  the  rest 
mostly  weed  seeds.  Sprouted  grain  makes  up  less  than  one  per  cent  of 
the  grain  found  in  the  stomachs.  As  many  as  thirty  kernels  of  oats 
with  enough  hulls  to  account  for  as  many  more  have  been  found  in 
single  stomachs.  Wild  oats  is  the  grain  most  often  taken.  One  stomach 
examined  contained  a  few  kernels  of  field  corn  and  about  ten  others 
contained  varieties  of  Egyptian  corn  and  Milo  maize. 

The  maximum  consumption  of  weed  seed  is  in  October,  when  almost 
one  fourth  of  the  food  is  made  up  of  these  seeds.  Seeds  of  filaree 
(Erodium  sp.)  are  most  often  taken.  Tarweed,  pigweed,  tumbleweed, 
amaranth,  mustard,  turkey  mullein,  Napa  thistle,  Johnson  grass, 
canary  grass,  foxtail,  sunflower,  burr  clover,  and  nightshade  seeds 
are  the  other  important  weed  seeds  eaten.  Over  one  hundred  seeds  of 
filaree  have  been  taken  from  a  single  stomach.  After  plowing  begins 
weed  seeds  are  not  available  in  cultivated  districts  except  along  fence 
rows  and  in  uncultivated  fields,  so  it  seems  natural  that  the  maximum 
number  eaten  are  taken  in  the  fall  months. 


—  10  — 

No  vegetable  matter  found  in  the  stomachs  has  been  identified  as 
fruit.  Grape  seeds  have  been  found  in  a  number  of  cases,  and  there 
is  no  doubt  but  that  western  meadowlarks  eat  grapes  to  a  slight  extent. 
No  serious  complaint  as  to  their  depredations  in  this  direction  has  been 
received.  The  stomachs  of  practically  all  of  the  birds  collected  in 
vineyards  have  been  filled  with  insects — mostly  beetles. 

VARIATION    OF    KIND    OF    FOOD    WITH    TIME    OF    YEAR    AND    LOCALITY. 

The  kind  of  food  taken  by  the  western  meadowlark  varies  greatly 
from  month  to  month.  During  the  spring  and  summer,  when  insects 
are  plentiful,  this  bird  feeds  almost  exclusively  on  insects.  During  the 
fall  and  winter  when  insects  are  no  longer  abundant  it  turns  its 
attention  to  weed  seeds  and  grain.  The  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  6) 
showing  the  amount  of  animal  and  vegetable  food  taken  by  meadow- 
larks  collected  each  month  at  Red  Bluff,  Tehama  County,  clearly  brings 
out  the  change  in  food  habits  from  one  part  of  the  year  to  another. 


A 

iimal  food 

Vege 

table  tood 

Jan. 
Feb. 
Mar. 

I 

1 
1 

Apr. 

Aug.               1 
Sept. 

1 
1 

] 

I 

I 

Oct. 
Nov. 

i 

Dec. 

^ 

Total 

Zl 

Fig.  6. — Diagram  showing  change  of  food-habits  of  the  western  meadowlark  from 
month  to  month.  Note  that  the  maximum  consumption  of  animal  food  is  to  be 
found  in  May,  June,  and  July,  and  the  minimum  corresponding  with  the  maximum 
of  vegetable  food,  in  January  and  February.  Computed  from  the  result  of  the 
stomach  examination  of  an  average  of  twelve  birds  taken  each  month  during  1911 
at   Red    Bluff,    Tehama   County,    California. 


The  investigation  has  shown  that  the  proportions  of  the  different 
kinds  of  food  taken  by  western  meadowlarks  varies  from  one  locality 
to  another.  Birds  collected  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Diego  took  a  less 
percentage  of  insects  than  those  collected  at  Riverside  and  San  Bernar- 
dino. Birds  collected  in  the  vicinity  of  Ukiah,  Mendocino  County,  took 
larger  numbers  of  click-beetles  than  birds  from  any  other  locality. 
Stomachs  of  birds  collected  in  the  vicinity  of  Hollister,  San  Benito 
County,  contained  extraordinarily  large  quantities  of  crickets.  Han- 
ford,  Kings  County,  birds  fed  very  extensively  on  cutworms.  Birds 
collected  at  Newman,  Stanislaus  County,  contained  extra  large  percent- 
ages of  stink-bugs  and  grasshoppers.  Birds  from  Red  Bluff,  Tehama 
County,  Live  Oak,  Yuba  County,  Sacramento,  Sacramento  County, 
Newman,  Stanislaus  County,  and  Los  Banos,  Merced  County,  took  very 
nearly  the  same  proportion  of  animal  and  vegetable  food. 

Meadowlarks  collected  in  alfalfa  fields  were  found  to  have  consumed 
larger  quantities  of  cutworms  and  caterpillars  than  birds  taken  in 
grainfields  or  orchards.  The  accompanying  table  makes  a  comparison 
of  the  food  of  birds  collected  in  alfalfa,  grain,  orchards,  and  vineyards. 


—  11  — 

Comparison  of  Food  Taken  by  Western  Meadowlarks  Collected  in  Alfalfa  fields.  Grain- 
fields,  Orchards,  and  Vineyards. 

Averages   of  ten   birds   collected   in   March,    April   and  May,    1911,   at  Hanford,   Kings 

County,   California. 


Kind  of  field. 

Per  cent 
animal 
food. 

Per  cent 

vegetable 

food. 

Average 

number 

of  beetles. 

Per  cent 
beetles. 

Average 

number  of 

cutworms 

and 

caterpillars. 

Per  cent 

cutworms 

and 

caterpillars. 

Alfalfa     

95.9 

99.4 
98  3 
78.3 

4.1 

.6 

1.7 

5.1 
9.4 
4.8 

24.1 
58.5 
31.7 

11.2 
1.8 

61.4 

Grain    

21.0 

Orchard     

6.5                 55.7 

Vineyard  

21.7                  1.0                 5.0 

7.0                 42.0 

Birds  collected  in  pasture  land  have  usually  shown  slightly  larger 
percentages  of  insects  than  those  collected  in  grainfields. 

All  of  this  evidence  goes  to  prove  that  the  western  meadowlark  varies 
its  food-habits  with  the  abundance  of  available  food.  If  the  bird  relied 
entirely  on  certain  kinds  of  insects,  its  usefulness  would  be  less  apparent. 
The  fact  that  it  turns  its  attention  to  the  insect  most  abundant  empha- 
sizes its  function  in  helping  to  maintain  a  desired  balance. 

FOOD   OF   NESTLINGS. 

Examination  of  the  stomachs  of  nestling  birds  has  shown  that  they 
are  fed  very  largely  on  cutworms,  caterpillars,  grasshoppers,  and  ground 
beetles.  In  almost  no  instance  has  grain  or  weed  seed  been  found  in 
the  stomachs.  The  increased  consumption  of  insects  due  to  the  demands 
of  young  birds  comes  at  a  time  when  there  are  growing  crops  which 
need  protection  and  when  insects  are  most  numerous,  thus  emphasizing 
the  value  of  birds  as  balancers.  The  fact  that  meadowlarks  show  a 
greater  preference  for  certain  kinds  of  insect  food  while  feeding  the 
young  enlarges  their  sphere  of  usefulness. 

QUANTITY    OF    FOOD. 

In  addition  to  the  evidence  furnished  by  stomach  examination,  certain 
experiments  have  been  carried  on  to  determine  the  quantity  of  food 
consumed  by  western  meadowlarks  and  the  time  of  digestion. 

The  time  of  digestion  was  determined  by  feeding  young  birds  and 
examining  the  stomachs  after  different  periods  of  time  had  elapsed. 
The  results  of  the  experiments  showed  that  western  meadowlarks  must 
completely  digest  a  meal  inside  of  four  hours.  It  was  found  that  grain 
takes  longer  to  digest  than  do  insects.  Thus  it  can  be  seen  that  the  food 
found  in  the  stomach  at  any  one  time  does  not  represent  the  amount  of 
food  taken  dairy,  but  only  about  a  third  part  of  that  consumed  daily. 

The  stomach  of  an  adult  male  western  meadowlark  will  hold  on  an 
average  about  three  cubic  centimeters  of  food.  The  female  bird  averages 
about  two  and  one  half  cubic  centimeters.  Taking  an  average  of  two 
and  three  quarters  cubic  centimeters  and  considering  that  each  bird 
fills  it  stomach  at  least  three  times  a  day,  one  hundred  western  meadow- 
larks must  consume  near  a  liter  or  about  a  quart  of  food  each  day.  If 
the  food  be  grain,  it  can  be  seen  that  the  amount  of  destruction  is  con- 
siderable. If  the  food  be  insects,  it  can  be  seen  that  meadowlarks  take 
a  large  daily  toll  of  insects.  The  same  type  of  computation  shows  that 
a  western  meadowlark  must  consume  at  least  six  pounds  of  food  a  year. 

Some  idea  of  the  average  numbers  of  the  common  insects,  grain  and 


—  12 


weed  seeds  destroyed  each  meal  by  western  meadowlarks  can  be  obtained 
from  the  following  table,  which  was  computed  from  the  results  of 
stomach  examinations  of  birds  collected  at  Sacramento,  California. 
The  average  for  the  day  is  three  times  that  for  each  meal. 

Average   Numbers  of  Common   Insects,  Grain  and  Weed  Seeds  Destroyed  by  Western 
Meadowlarks    at    Sacramento,    California. 


Time  of  year. 

Average  number  per  bird  of — 

Num- 
ber 
of 

birds. 

Grain. 

Weed 
seeds. 

Ticetles. 

Cut- 
worms 

and 
eater- 
pillars. 

Grass- 
hoppers. 

Ants, 
bees  and 
wasps. 

14 

February  to  April,   inclusive 

Sept.  to  Nov.,  inclusive 

5.7 
86.2 

4 
2 

8.0 
2.2 

11 

2.5 

2.6                    1 

Few  people  have  any  realization  of  the  great  quantities  of  insects 
consumed  by  birds.  For  instance,  if  we  consider  that  there  is  an 
average  of  one  meadowlark  to  every  four  acres  of  available  land  for 
cultivation  (11,000,000  acres)  in  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 
valleys,  and  that  each  pair  of  birds  raises  an  average  of  four  young, 
each  one  of  which  averages  one  ounce  in  weight  while  in  the  nest  and 
consumes  its  own  weight  of  food  each  day,  it  takes  193  tons  of  insect 
food  each  day  to  feed  the  young  birds  in  the  great  valleys  alone. 
The  numbers  of  birds  probably  exceed  the  number  suggested.  The 
increased  consumption  of  insect  food  due  to  nestling  birds  comes  at  a 
time  when  insects  are  most  numerous,  and  so  is  instrumental  in  helping 
to  prevent  an  undue  increase  of  insects. 

A  very  conservative  estimate  of  the  approximate  amount  of  the 
different  kinds  of  food  consumed  by  the  average  meadowlark  in  Cali- 
fornia during  the  year  is  as  follows : 

Grain  1|  pounds 

Weed  seed J  pound 

Insects    2J  pounds 

Total 6    pounds 

RELATION    TO    INSECT   OUTBREAKS. 

Studies  have  been  made  of  the  relation  of  birds  to  two  insect  out- 
breaks ;  one,  an  outbreak  of  butterflies  (Eugonia  calif  omica)  in  northern 
California  during  the  summer  of  1911,  and  second,  a  grasshopper  out- 
break in  Merced  County  in  the  summer  of  1912. 

Although  butterflies  are  usually  considered  unpalatable,  yet  it  was 
found  that  Brewer  blackbirds  were  feeding  almost  entirely  on  them, 
and  that  western  meadowlarks  and  several  other  birds  took  them  to  a 
slight  extent. 

Investigation  showed  that  meadowlarks  in  Merced  County  averaged 
more  grasshoppers  per  day  during  the  outbreak  in  1912  than  in  1911, 
when  the  insects  were  not  so  abundant.  The  following  table  compares 
the  numbers  taken  in  the  two  years : 


Num- 
ber 
of 

birds. 

Date. 

Per  cent 
animal 
food. 

Per  cent 

vegetable 

food. 

Average 
number 
grass- 
hoppers 
per  bird. 

Total 
per  cent 

grass- 
hoppers. 

10 July  11,  22, 

5 -Tulv  15     17. 

1911 

1912    .-     . 

99.0 
99.2 

1.0 

.8 

7 
16 

83.1 
96.2 

13 


Next  to  the  red-winged  blackbird  the  western  meadowlark  proved  to 
be  the  most  efficient  destroyer  of  grasshoppers,  not  only  because  of  its 
numbers,  but  also  because  of  their  high  average. 

The  following  facts  have  been  demonstrated  by  these  investigations 
of  insect  outbreaks : 

1.  Birds  cannot  be  considered  a  dependable  means  of  completely  controlling  all 
insect  outbreaks,  but  can  be  inferred  to  be  instrumental  in  the  prevention  of  many. 

2.  Birds  can  be  depended  upon  to  act  as  defenders  and  protectors  of  crops  because 
of  their  warfare  against  insect  pests. 

3.  Birds  change  their  food-habits  and  feed  on  the  insect  most  abundant,  thereby 
making  them  important  maintainers  of  the  desired  balance  in  nature. 

4.  The  failure  of  birds  to  check  an  insect  outbreak  is  evident  to  all.  Their  suc- 
cess in  preventing  insects  from  becoming  abnormally  abundant  is  not  so  apparent, 
but  none  the  less  real.  All  obtainable  evidence  points  to  the  fact  that  the  regulative 
influence  exerted  by  birds  when  insects  are  to  be  found  in  normal  numbers,  though 
less  apparent,  is  none  the  less  important,  for  at  such  times  artificial  control  measures 
are  seldom  used. 

5.  Birds  which,  on  account  of  their  abundance,  cause  serious  losses  to  the  agri- 
culturist often  become  for  the  same  reason  the  most  efficient  insect  destroyers  at  the 
time  of  an  insect  outbreak. 

6.  Birds  fill  a  niche  in  the  balance  of  nature  which  is  not  and  cannot  be  filled 
by  any  other  form  of  life.  Their  destruction,  therefore,  causes  a  dangerous  disturb- 
ance of  that  balance  of  nature  most  suited  to  mankind. 

THE     ECONOMIC    STATUS     OF    THE     WESTERN     MEADOWLARK. 

A  correct  determination  of  the  economic  value  of  any  bird  is  de- 
pendent on  a  comparison  of  its  injuries  with  its  benefits.  Such  a 
comparison  is  presented  for  the  western  meadowlark  as  follows : 


INJURIES. 

1.  Destroys   sprouting  oats,   bar- 
ley, and  wheat. 

2.  Destroys    some    beneficial    in- 
sects. 


BENEFITS. 

1.  Destroys  in  greater  or  less  quantity  al- 
most every  important  insect  pest  found  in 
grain  fields. 

2.  Is  important  as  a  protector  of  crops  at 
the  time  of  an  insect  outbreak  and  perhaps 
more  important  when  insects  are  in  normal 
numbers. 

3.  Destroys  the  seeds  of  many  serious  weed 
pests. 

4.  Feeds  in  places  that  other  birds  do  not 
frequent,  thereby  destroying  pests  not  destroyed 
by  other  birds. 


Fig.  7. 


-The  destruction  of  insects  and  weed  seeds  accorded  by  the  western  meadow- 
lark  more  than  balances  its  destruction  of  grain. 


—  14  — 


Those  factors  which  make  the  depredations  <>f  the  western  meadow- 
lark  important  and  those  factors  which  minimize  the  damage  done  may 

he  summarized  as  follows  : 


1.  Method  of  pulling  sprout  ins 
grain. 

2.  Lack  of  insect  food  when 
grain   is  sprouting. 

3.  Availability  of  grain  at  the 
time  when  insects  are  at  a  mini- 
mum. 

4.  Flocking  habit. 

5.  Abundance  of  meadowlarks 
in   grain-growing   localities. 

6.  Great  capacity  and  rapid  di- 
gestion. 


1.  Boring  habit  valuable  in  securing  such 
insects   as  cutworms  and  wireworms. 

2.  Take  a  larger  percentage  of  insects  than 
of  grain  during  the  year. 

3.  Time  during  which  damage  can  result 
limited. 

4.  Flocking  habit  makes  control  measures 
easier. 

5.  Abundance  of  meadowlarks  assures  more 
efficient  destruction  of  insect  pests. 

G.  Great  capacity  and  rapid  digestion  im- 
proves their  value  as  insect  destroyers.  Slower 
digestion  of  grain  than  of  insects  makes  a  less 
consumption  of  the  former. 

7.  Do  not  destroy  other  crops. 

8.  Apparently  driven  to  grain  only  when 
insects  are  not  available. 

9.  Prefer  uncultivated  land. 

10.  Unable  to  cause  serious  damage  when 
grain  is  planted  deeply. 


The  causes  for  and  against  protecting  the  western  meadowlark  may 
be  summarized  as  follows: 


AGAINST    PROTECTION. 

1.  Destroys    sprouting    grain. 

2.  Eats     grain      during      winter 
mouths. 

3.  Destroys    sprouting   seeds. 

4.  Destroys    some    beneficial    in- 
jects. 


FOE  PROTECTION. 

1.  Destroys  quantities  of  injurious  insects. 

2.  Destroys  weed  seed. 

3.  Fills  important  niche  in  the  economy  of 
nature. 

4.  Has  great  esthetic  value-. 

5.  Depredations  limited  to  two  weeks'  time 
on  any  one  field  and  limited  to  grain-growing 
districts. 


It  must  be  apparent  from  these  comparisons  that  the  balance  is  cer- 
tainly in  favor  of  the  meadowlark.  Birds  are  considered  a  national 
resource  and  so  belong  to  the  people  as  a  whole.  It  even  seems  doubtful 
whether  the  grain  grower  should  destroy  birds  damaging  his  crops  when 
the  same  birds  might  be  performing  a  great  service  in  destroying 
injurious  insects  in  his  own  or  his  neighbor's  alfalfa  field. 

It  is  readily  acknowledged  that  birds  are  not  the  only  checks  of  the 
increase  of  insects.  The  very  large  toll  taken  by  them,  however,  places 
them  in  the  front  rank  as  insect  destroyers.  Parasites  only  become 
abundant  when  their  hosts  becomes  abundant.  Birds,  in  order  to  keep 
alive,  must  wage  a  continual  warfare  on  insect  life,  no  matter  what  the 
abundance.  They  are  evidently,  therefore,  to  be  relied  upon  as  more 
dependable  regulators  than  parasites. 

Since,  as  has  been  shown,  the  average  adult  western  meadowlark 
•destroys  nearly  three  pounds  of  insects  each  year  and  probably  almost 
as  many  more  pounds  while  feeding  its  young,  its  value  to  the  agri- 
culturist is  apparent.  The  value  of  one  of  these  birds  living  to  one 
dead  is,  therefore,  as  five  pounds  of  insects  and  one  half  pound  of  weed 
seeds  is  to  one  and  three  fourths  pounds  of  grain,  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  which  is  made  up  of  wild  oats  and  waste  grain. 

The   fact   that   the   western   meadowlark  destroys   certain   beneficial 


—  15  — 

insects  cannot  be  counted  a  point  in  its  favor.  And  yet,  the  quantity 
taken  is  so  small,  less  than  five  per  cent  of  the  food  for  the  year,  and 
the  destruction  so  caused  is  such  an  indirect  injury  that  the  damage 
possible  is  very  slight  and  practically  negligible.  The  destruction  of 
an  ichneumon  compared  with  the  destruction  of  one  hundred  grass- 
hoppers, somewhat  the  proportion  in  which  they  are  taken,  leaves  no 
doubt  as  to  the  comparative  benefit  to  be  derived. 

The  investigation  has  shown  that  the  western  meadowlark  deserves 
protection  and  encouragement  at  the  hands  of  the  agriculturist.  Only 
in  rare  cases  can  it  be  said  that  the  bird  does  more  harm  than  good. 
One  and  three  fourths  quarts  of  insects  taken  by  a  western  meadow- 
lark  during  a  year  more  than  pays  for  less  than  one  quart  of  grain,  a 
large  part  of  which  does  not  represent  a  loss. 

The  present  law  which  provides  for  the  killing  of  any  bird  found 
destroying  crops  by  the  owner  or  tenant  of  a  place  seems  adequate  at 
the  present  time.  A  law  taking  protection  from  the  meadowlark  is  not 
justified  by  the  results  of  the  investigation. 

SUGESTIONS    FOR    THE    PROTECTION    OF   CROPS. 

Where  losses  to  crops  warrant  protective  measures,  the  following  are 
proposed : 

1.  Plant  grain  deeply.  It  secures  a  better  crop  regardless  of  losses 
due  to  meadowlarks.  Drilled  grain  gives  a  better  yield  than  broad- 
casted and  is  also  better  protected  from  the  attack  of  meadowlarks. 
(See  University  of  California  Publ.,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Bulletin  211,  p.  278.) 

2.  Fields  bordering  pasture  or  uncultivated  land,  if  sowed  more 
heavily  along  such  margins  will  assure  a  normal  crop. 

3.  Meadowlarks  are  easily  frightened  from  a  field  by  shooting  or  by 
a  dog.  As  damage  is  limited  to  a  short  period  of  time,  this  method 
seems  practical  on  small  fields. 

4.  Under  extreme  conditions  meadowlarks  may  be  easily  reduced 
in  numbers  by  the  use  of  a  shotgun. 


SUMMARY. 

Owing  to  the  constant  complaint  of  ranchers  as  to  the  depredations 
of  birds  throughout  the  State,  the  California  State  Fish  and  Game 
Commission  in  cooperation  with  the  University  of  California  has  under- 
taken a  thorough,  scientific  investigation  into  the  relation  of  certain 
birds  to  agricultural  interests.  The  western  meadowlark  has  been  the 
first  one  to  receive  attention. 

The  investigation  has  included  field  investigation,  experimentation, 
and  a  study  of  the  food-habits  of  the  bird  for  the  whole  year  by  an 
examination  of  the  stomach-contents  of  birds  collected  for  the  purpose 
each  month  of  the  year  and  in  over  twenty-five  different  localities  in 
the  State. 

Field  investigation  has  shown  that  the  western  meadowlark  destroys 
sprouting  grain.  The  amount  of  damage  varies  with  the  depth  of 
planting,  the  size  of  the  field,  the  condition  of  the  soil,  the  proximity  to 
pasture  or  uncultivated  land,  and  the  abundance  of  the  birds. 


—  16  — 

Stomach  examination  has  shown  that  60  per  cent  of  the  food  for  the 
year  is  made  up  of  animal  matter,  and  40  per  cent  of  vegetable  matter. 
The  animal  matter  is  made  up  almost  entirely  of  insects,  most  of  which 
are  injurious  to  crops.  Ground  beetles,  grasshoppers,  crickets,  cut- 
worms, caterpillars,  wireworms,  stink-bugs,  and  ants  form  the  principal 
items.  All  of  these  insects  are  destroyed  in  great  numbers.  The 
vegetable  food  is  made  up  of  grain  and  weed  seeds.  Grain  as  food 
reaches  a  maximum  in  November,  December  and  January. 

The  verdict  of  ranchers  throughout  the  State  obtained  by  a  circular 
letter  has  shown  that  there  is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
extent  of  damage  caused  by  the  meaclowlark.  More  than  one  half 
maintain  that  the  meadowlark  does  not  damage  crops  and  is,  therefore, 
not  a  nuisance. 

Experimentation  has  shown  that  the  western  meadowlark  has  an 
average  capacity  of  two  and  three  fourths  cubic  centimeters  and  that 
the  stomach  contents  is  digested  within  a  period  of  four  hours,  thus 
making  the  daily  consumption  at  least  three  times  the  capacity.  Young 
birds  need  very  near  their  own  weight  of  food  daily  and  are  fed  entirely 
on  insects. 

Western  meadowlarks  turn  their  attention  to  the  insect  most  abund- 
ant, thereby  increasing  their  efficiency  at  the  time  of  an  insect  outbreak. 
They  bear  an  important  relation  to  grasshopper  outbreaks,  and  to  other 
insect  outbreaks  as  well. 

When  the  benefits  conferred  by  the  western  meadowlark  are  balanced 
with  the  injuries,  there  remains  no  doubt  that  the  bird  deserves  protec- 
tion and  encouragement.  Its  value  as  a  destroyer  of  injurious  insects 
far  exceeds  its  detriment  as  a  destroyer  of  sprouting  grain.  The  value 
of  a  western  meadowlark  living  to  one  dead  is  as  five  pounds  of  insects 
(mostly  injurious)  and  one  half  pound  of  weed  seeds  is  to  one  and 
three  fourths  pounds  of  grain,  a  considerable  part  of  which  is  made  up 
of  wild  oats  and  waste  grain. 

Present  laws  seem  adequate  to  assure  both  the  bird  and  the  rancher 
sufficient  protection. 

A  strong  point  favoring  the  protection  of  the  western  meadowlark 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  only  real  damage  caused  (that  to 
sprouting  grainfields)  can  be  largely  prevented  by  planting  grain 
deeply  and  drilling  instead  of  broadcasting,  two  measures  highly  advo- 
cated by  all  agricultural  experiment  stations  as  favoring  larger  crops. 

PROTECTIVE   MEASURES. 

Where  protective  measures  are  found  necessary,  the  following  are 
recommended : 

1.  Deep  planting. 

2.  Drilling  as  against  broadcasting. 

3.  Heavier  sowing  along  margins  of  fields  bordering  on  pasture  or 

uncultivated  land. 

4.  Frightening  from  fields. 

5.  As  a  last  resort,  the  use  of  the  shotgun. 


